Indian Society of Extension Education, Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi is a registered professional society under registration number S2504 since 1964. Indian Journal of Extension Education is the Official publication of Indian Society of Extension Education (ISEE). It publishes original research papers in the field of extension education and allied fields since its inception from 1964. Indexing Details: Scopus Indexed Journal, UGC APPROVED 2023, NAAS - 5.95, Base, Google Scholar, Crossref, Scilit, AGRIS, ICI, ASI, Ebsco,
A Tool to Measure Livelihood Vulnerability of Climate-Sensitive Farming Communities
Climate change is one of the major concerns for rural livelihoods, particularly for families dependent on agriculture. Understanding livelihood vulnerability to climate change is essential for developing adaptive strategies. The present study, conducted in March 2025, aimed to develop a scale for livelihood vulnerability by incorporating three dimensions: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. From an initial pool of 53 statements, 36 were finalized after expert validation and statistical screening. The Likert methodology was used to assess the statements. Content validity was established through expert review, and internal consistency of the scale was assessed by using Cronbach’s alpha (0.90), indicating high reliability. The final scale offers a comprehensive, reliable tool for assessing livelihood vulnerability to climate change and can be used for research, policy formulation, and relevant interventions in climate-sensitive regions.
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Determinants of ARYA Adoption for Livelihood Security in Nalgonda district of Telangana
The study was conducted during 2023-25 to identify the determinants influencing the adoption of the ARYA programme in Nalgonda district. Employing a multistage random sampling technique, data were collected from 160 rural youth across four agriculturally prominent blocks using structured interview. The analysis revealed that the integrated farming system emerged as the most widely adopted component of the ARYA programme, followed by animal husbandry and horticultural activities. 70.63 per cent of respondents exhibited medium adoption levels, indicating partial engagement with programme components. Correlation analysis identified attitude (r = 0.753**) and knowledge (r = 0.738**) as the most significant predictors of adoption, while education, landholding, annual income, and extension contact also showed strong positive associations. The study highlighted critical gaps in the adoption of marketing and post harvest practices, suggesting the need for strengthening forward linkages, value addition infrastructure, and market accessibility. The findings emphasised the importance of targeted awareness campaigns, skill enhancement initiatives, and institutional support to promote entrepreneurship among rural youth. Strengthening extension services and refining programme implementation strategies can enhance adoption levels, ensuring livelihood security and sustainable development in rural communities.
Barriers to Handicraft Development in Rural Saravan, Iran: A Bayesian Network and Fuzzy AHP Analysis
The study examined the key barriers hindering the development of the handicraft sector in Saravan, Iran, with a focus on identifying their significance and interrelationships. Despite the global recognition of Saravan’s Kalporagan pottery, a 7,000-year-old tradition preserved by local women, the region’s handicraft industry has faced persistent stagnation. A mixed method approach was adopted, utilizing the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP) to categorize barriers into six main groups: managerial, motivational-psychological, marketing and sales, financial-economic, skill-technical, and product-based. This study was conducted in 2024. The findings showed that managerial barriers were the most critical, followed by motivational and marketing challenges, while product-related barriers had the least impact. To explore causal connections among these barriers, Bayesian Network Analysis (BNA) was applied, revealing that managerial shortcomings significantly influenced financial and marketing constraints. The study concluded that addressing managerial inefficiencies could alleviate other development obstacles. It emphasized the need for targeted institutional reforms, investment in tourism infrastructure, and improved market access to revitalize Saravan’s handicrafts and contribute to sustainable rural development.
Utilization of Smartphones for Accessing Agricultural Information by Farmers in Bokaro District of Jharkhand
The study examines the utilization pattern of smartphones for accessing agricultural information among farmers in Bokaro district of Jharkhand. A total of 160 respondents were selected through a multistage sampling method across sixteen villages. Data were collected using a pre-tested interview schedule to assess the frequency, purpose, and extent of smartphone usage during 2024-25. The results revealed that the majority of farmers regularly used smartphones to access weather forecasts, market prices, and pest management information. However, usage was relatively low for advanced topics such as post-harvest practices, webinars, and online agricultural forums. The overall utilization index indicated moderate use, with 73.13 per cent of respondents falling in the medium category. Kruskal– Wallis H test showed significant differences in smartphone utilization based on education, occupation, landholding, income, and knowledge level. Correlation analysis identified annual income and knowledge as the most influential factors. Respondents with higher income and knowledge were significantly more inclined to use smartphones for agricultural purposes. In contrast, variables like age, family size, and scientific orientation showed no significant influence. The study highlights the growing role of digital tools in rural agriculture and emphasizes the need for targeted interventions to enhance digital literacy and bridge the information gap among farmers.
Development of a Scale to Assess Kerala Farmers’ Attitude towards Digital Technologies in Agriculture
The expanding role of digital technologies in agriculture highlights the importance of understanding farmers’ attitudes toward their adoption, particularly in the context of Kerala’s digital infrastructure and e-governance. The research, carried out in 2025, sought to create a standardized Likert attitude scale to evaluate the attitude of Kerala farmers on the employment of digital technologies in agriculture. A preliminary collection of 68 attitude statements was formed through literature research and expert input. These statements were assessed by 30 specialists in agricultural extension, and following their feedback, 56 items were chosen for further analysis. The chosen items were distributed to 60 farmers from non-sample regions-30 from Karuvatta Panchayat and 30 from Kayamkulam Municipality, situated in the Onattukara Sandy Plain agro-ecological unit. Participants rated the statements using a five-point Likert scale. Employing the t-test established by Edwards (1957, 1969), statements with strong discriminative ability were retained, resulting in a final scale of 20 items comprising 10 positive and 10 negative statements, achieving a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.91, which demonstrates excellent reliability and content validity confirmed through expert assessment.
Constraints in the Adoption of Stress Tolerant Rice Varieties (STRVs) in Odisha
The study investigated barriers to the adoption of stress-tolerant rice varieties (STRVs) among farmers in Odisha during 2024-2025. Data from 240 randomly selected farmers, collected via an ex-post facto design and analysed using Henry Garrett’s ranking technique. The analysis revealed key constraints across social, economic, managerial, technological, and organisational dimensions. Major barriers identified were low literacy, social marginalization, risk aversion, high input costs, limited financial literacy, weak post-adoption evaluation, insufficient STRV knowledge, inadequate demonstration trials, and poorly designed training programs. The results highlight the complex interplay of these obstacles and emphasise the need for comprehensive interventions–such as targeted literacy and capacity-building initiatives, improved financial support, adaptive extension services, and participatory demonstrations, all tailored to meet the needs of marginalized farmers to enhance STRV adoption in the countryside.
Perceived Constraints among Dairy Farmers in Eastern India Using Logistic Regression
The dairy sector plays a crucial role in sustaining rural livelihoods, especially among the small and marginal farmers, by providing food security, nutrition, and a regular source of income. However, these farmers often face a variety of structural and operational constraints that hinder their growth and economic development. This study investigated the key perceived constraints experienced by selected 270 Marginal-Small (MS) dairy farmers of Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the year 2024, selected through multistage stratified purposive-cum-random sampling, using logistic regression analysis. Among these, the high insurance charges emerged as the most severe factor, increasing the odds of constraint by 17 times. The model was well-fitted as indicated by a Hosmer and Lemeshow test value of 0.201 and Nagelkerke R² of 0.326, explaining about 32.6 per cent of variance in constraints faced. The study concludes that targeted policy reforms are needed to address critical bottlenecks in the dairy sector. Overall, the findings reinforce the importance of a need-based and evidence-driven approach for inclusive rural development through dairy enterprise support.
Psychometric Development of a Knowledge Test on Tick Infestation in Small Ruminants
A test was developed to assess farmers’ knowledge on tick infestation in small ruminants. Following the literature review, experts’ input, and pilot findings, a list of 48 items was identified and screened for relevancy by experts, resulting in 36 items retained for item analysis. These items were pretested during 2024-25 on 60 purposively selected farmers from non-sampling areas using a direct interview method with dichotomous scoring of ‘1’ for correct and ‘0’ for incorrect response. Based on item difficulty and discrimination indices, 30 items were finalized. Validity of the instrument was established using point biserial correlation, with all items exhibiting acceptable correlation values of more than 0.30. Reliability of the tool was measured by the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 and was found to be excellent with the value of 0.9162. Finally, the test consisted of 30 well-structured items organized under six thematic dimensions of tick infestation. The developed test offers a valuable means to assess farmers’ knowledge, serving as a foundation for developing targeted awareness and capacity-building interventions.
Disruptions in Lifestyle Due to Escalating Screen Time: A Behavioural Perspective
Heavy reliance on screen media can negatively affect the daily lives and activities of adolescents and youth. The study aims to find out the association between increased screen time and its impact on lifestyle among adolescents and youth. Cross-sectional descriptive research was conducted for this purpose between March and August of 2023. The stratified random sampling method was used to select 200 participants from the age group of 14-18 years. After getting a permission letter from the District Inspector Officer of Schools (DIOS), participants were approached from various selected schools in Varanasi District, Uttar Pradesh. In this study, a self-structured questionnaire with twenty-two closed-ended questions was included. The study findings highlighted that increased screen time was found to be negatively associated with outdoor activities, backlogs from household activities, and the inability to draw attention from the screen. The results also indicated that there were no distinct gender differences in the tendency to continue using screens after using them and that screen use was higher on weekends than on weekdays.
Constraints in Adopting Improved Chickpea Cultivation Practices in Ballia, Uttar Pradesh
Despite favourable agro-climatic conditions in eastern Uttar Pradesh, chickpea productivity remains below potential due to multiple adoption barriers. This study investigated the constraints faced by chickpea growers in Ballia district, Uttar Pradesh, during the Rabi season of 2024–25. Using multistage random sampling, 160 farmers from four blocks and sixteen villages were surveyed with structured interviews. The most pressing constraint was the non-availability of agricultural inputs at the proper time, followed by knowledge related gaps such as a lack of information about improved chickpea varieties and a lack of training in scientific chickpea production. Economic factors such as the high cost of seed, fertilisers, insecticides, and implements, and institutional issues like the non-availability of required seeds in cooperative societies also ranked high. Environmental and social issues–particularly the grazing animal problem and labour shortages during peak seasons further complicated technology adoption. Lower-ranked but still relevant constraints included limited exposure to demonstrations, poor market access, and gender barriers in extension outreach. These findings highlight the complex interplay of technical, economic, institutional, and environmental factors in adoption behaviour. The study recommends a multi-dimensional approach involving timely input delivery, capacity building, improved infrastructure, and targeted policy interventions to enhance chickpea productivity and sustainable adoption of improved cultivation practices.
A Cross-State Analysis of Livelihood Security Among Farm Women in Kerala and Manipur
Farm women, having a pivotal role in agriculture, continue to face systemic barriers to livelihood security. This study was undertaken in 2022 to assess and compare the livelihood security, identify the constraints and formulate a sustainable livelihood security framework for the farm women in Kerala and Manipur state. Primary data were collected from 90 respondents using pre-tested interview schedule and validated with key local informants through focus group discussions. Descriptive statistics, frequency and Principal Component Analysis were used as statistical tools for data analysis. The findings revealed that 51.11 per cent of the respondents in Kerala and 64.44 per cent in Manipur had a moderate level of livelihood security. The first two components i.e. food and occupational security, could explain the total variance of 70.926 per cent for Kerala and 56.336 per cent for Manipur. The main constraints to livelihood security for farm women were insufficient funding and inadequate government support. Based on these findings, livelihood strategies were formulated for farm women and delivery system level to safeguard the livelihood outcomes. Designing interventions and policies aimed at ensuring farm women’s sustainable livelihood security will be significantly impacted by these findings and recommendations.
A Scale to Measure Farmers’ Perception of Capacity Needs under NICRA
A study conducted in 2024 developed and standardized a summated-rating scale to measure farmers’ perceptions of capacity needs under the National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) program. An initial pool of 155 statements was generated from literature and expert consultation, then screened by 100 judges (41 responses) and reduced to 80 items using a relevancy index threshold of >80. The 80 items were pilot tested with 32 farmers in a non-sampled area; item analysis followed Edwards’ top/ bottom 25 per cent t-test procedure, and 31 items with t > 2.145 were retained. The final instrument’s reliability was assessed using the split-half method with 40 respondents (odd–even split), yielding a coefficient of 0.955. Criterion validity was examined by correlating perception scores with operational landholding; the correlation was moderate (r = 0.531), supporting the scale’s validity. The resulting scale provides a consistent and interpretable measure of farmers’ capacity-need perceptions under NICRA and can inform targeting of training, advisory, and monitoring interventions. The tool is adaptable to other locations and projects with minor contextual changes.
Perceived Benefits and Pre-Design Environmental Impact Assessment of Eco Friendly Ornament Development
The study examined the environmental benefits and pre-design impact assessments of eco-friendly ornaments in rural Uttar Pradesh, focusing on Ayodhya district. A sample of 240 respondents was selected from 24 villages using multistage random sampling. Data were collected through structured interviews, surveys, and direct observations, and analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and Student’s t-test. The results, conducted in 2024-2025, show that 58.75 per cent of respondents supported eco-friendly ornaments to promote environmental safety (χ² = 191.95, p < 0.05). However, when it came to the integration of environmental considerations during the design phase, durability (35.41%) was the most cited factor, but differences were not statistically significant (t = 0.167 < 3.182). In terms of ecological benefits, energy saving (40.41%) and fossil fuel alternatives (30.41%) were the most recognized advantages, with statistical significance (χ² = 48.61, p < 0.05). These findings highlight a strong environmental motivation among consumers in rural areas, although sustainability is not fully integrated into the early stages of product design. The study emphasizes the need for interventions that raise awareness and build capacity to ensure that sustainability becomes a key consideration in the design process, ultimately promoting more environmentally responsible ornamentation practices in rural India.
Mapping Dairy Farmers’ Preferences for Improved Feeding Practices Using Paired Comparison Method
Dairy farmers’ preferences for improved feeding practices were assessed in Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh using a pairwise comparison technique. The findings indicate a strong preference for traditional, low-cost interventions. Salt supplementation ranked highest with a scale value of 2.924, followed by year-round green fodder production (2.730) and sugarcane tops (2.281). These results highlight farmers’ favour for easily accessible and cost-effective options. Moderately accepted practices included mineral mixtures (1.862) and fresh vegetable waste (1.787), reflecting a cautious openness. However, more scientifically advanced practices such as anti-methane additives, probiotics, bypass fat, hay, urea-treated straw, and silage were less preferred, with scale values ranging from 1.325 to near zero. This lower acceptance suggests either limited awareness or reluctance to adopt more technical and potentially costly feeding practices. To evaluate the consistency of these preferences, an internal consistency check was conducted. The resulting average discrepancy of 0.090 indicates a reasonable level of internal consistency. Overall, the findings provide a clear picture of current dairy feeding practice preferences, with traditional approaches continuing to dominate farmer choices.
Development and Validation of a Knowledge Test on Scientific Walnut Cultivation
Knowledge is the foundation for shaping attitudes, encouraging adoption of innovations, and guiding logical decision-making. Since knowledge forms the first step in the innovation-diffusion process, followed by persuasion and attitude change. In 2024, a study was carried out in the Pulwama district of the Kashmir region of J&K UT to design a knowledge test for systematic walnut growers with the aim to assess their understanding of various production recommendations. The test was developed using standard psychometric methods to ensure accuracy and reliability. Initially, 32 knowledge-based statements were framed with the help of subject experts. Each statement was analyzed using the difficulty index and discrimination index, which helped identify the most suitable for effectively measuring farmers’ knowledge. Based on this analysis, 14 statements were retained for the final test. To check reliability, the split half method was applied, yielding a high reliability coefficient of 0.90, using the Spearman Brown prophecy formula. Furthermore, internal consistency was assured using Cronbach’s alpha, which gave a coefficient of 0.83. It confirmed that the knowledge test was both reliable and valid, making it a strong tool for evaluating the knowledge of walnut growers.
Farmers Livelihood Security through Sheep Farming in Bareilly District of Uttar Pradesh
The study was conducted in 2024 to assess the livelihood security of sheep-owning farmers in Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh. A Livelihood Security Index (LSI) was developed based on five key dimensions: food and nutritional security, economic and marketing security, infrastructural security, social security, and resource use efficiency. Content validity and relevance were tested using scoring methods. Data were collected from farmers using a structured interview schedule, and LSI was computed through standardized scoring and weighted aggregation. Correlation analysis using SPSS (SPSS 26.0) identified the relationship between livelihood security and selected socio-economic variables. Results revealed that most farmers had a moderate level of livelihood security (composite index = 0.617), with resource use efficiency and economic security being the strongest areas. Income, education, flock size, extension contact, and knowledge had significant positive correlations with livelihood security, while credit access showed a negative correlation. The study concluded that targeted interventions in infrastructure, financial literacy, and behavioural capacity building are essential to enhance the livelihood resilience of smallholder sheep farmers.
Constraints Faced by Farmers in Adapting to Climate Change in North Bihar
The study was conducted in 2025 in North Bihar to investigate the challenges faced by farmers in adapting to climate change. Districts Darbhanga and Sitamarhi were purposively chosen on the basis of high vulnerability to climate change. To analyze the constraints faced by farmers, 192 respondents were selected randomly from selected villages. Farmers were surveyed through personal interviews, and data were analyzed using Garrett’s ranking technique to prioritize the constraints hindering adaptation to climate change. The constraints were divided into four categories, i.e., socio-personal constraints, institutional constraints, technical constraints, and financial constraints. The analysis revealed that socio-personal constraints, such as small size fragmented landholdings, and increasing labour scarcity, whereas institutional constraints such as lack of accurate and untimely information about weather forecast and poor extension service on climate risk management were major constraints faced by farmers in adapting to climate change in north Bihar. Furthermore, the highly dependent nature of farmers on the monsoon and the lack of training on climate-smart agriculture practices were ranked as major technical constraints, whereas the high cost of inputs and the non-availability of untimely inputs were financial constraints faced by farmers.
Development and Standardization of a Scale to Measure Vegetable Growers’ Attitude towards Safety Measures in Pesticide Application
The study aimed to develop a scale for assessing the attitude of vegetable growers towards safety measures in pesticide application was conducted during 2024. A total of 110 statements were initially framed under eleven dimensions: Selection and Transportation, Storage, Precautions during Preparation and Application, Precautions after Application, Disposal of Containers, Environmental Protection, Health and Safety, Record Keeping and Monitoring, Pesticide Regulations, Education and Training, and First Aid and Emergency Response. These were evaluated by 60 judges, based on their judgment and subsequent item analysis, 52 statements were retained after calculating the t-values. The scale was constructed using the Likert methodology, yielding an overall mean relevancy score of 2.50. A pilot test was conducted with 60 vegetable growers from a non-sampled area, setting the cut off value for item selection at equal or more than 1.75 t-value. Reliability was assessed using the split half method, which yielded a coefficient value of 0.82. This result was further verified using the Spearman-Brown formula, producing a value of 0.89, thereby confirming the reliability of the scale. In addition, the Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.86 indicated a high level of internal consistency in the developed scale.
Bridging the Digital Divide: Constraints to Digital Literacy Among Joint Liability Groups Women Farmers in Kerala
Digital literacy remains a critical determinant of women farmers’ ability to participate in and benefit from emerging agricultural innovations. Among women farmers in Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) in Kerala, multiple barriers continue to limit their effective digital engagement. To capture these constraints, data were collected from 280 respondents across 14 districts during April-May 2025 using a structured interview schedule supplemented by focus group discussions. Constraints were prioritised through Garrett’s ranking technique. The findings revealed that limited training opportunities emerged as the most severe barrier (mean score 64.66), followed by high internet costs (56.28), lack of local mentorship (56.03), and insufficient government initiatives for digital adoption (55.35). Other important challenges included non-customised training programs (55.27), low digital proficiency (55.12), complex digital interfaces (54.82), dependence on family members (51.78), low motivation (50.59), and language barriers in training materials (48.40). The findings indicate that digital exclusion among JLG women farmers arises from interlinked educational, economic, infrastructural, and socio-cultural constraints. The study emphasises the need for gender-sensitive and context-specific training, affordable internet access, community-based mentorship, and targeted policy support to strengthen digital literacy and empower women farmers in Kerala’s agrarian economy.
Exploring the Dimensions of Millet Awareness among Generational Cohorts
The rising disposable income and growing awareness of environmental sustainability have driven a shift towards healthier lifestyles across generational cohorts, with millets gaining popularity as a nutritious and sustainable food option. Although rural consumers adopt millet products in their regular diet, urban adoption seems limited. Therefore, the study explored millet awareness among urban consumers from Generations X (aged between 42- 60 years), Y (28-42 years), and Z (18-28 years) using a qualitative approach, incorporating in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The data was analysed through grounded theory methodology adopting the Gioia Technique. The findings revealed nine distinct types of millet awareness and highlighted variations across generational cohorts. Furthermore, the study identified four key dimensions of millet awareness, such as health-related awareness, product-specific awareness, environmental awareness, and socio-cultural awareness, thereby contributing to the existing body of knowledge. These insights provide valuable guidance for marketers, policymakers, and society to enhance awareness and adoption of millets, thereby promoting health, sustainability, and broader sustainable development goals.
Exploring Consumer Behaviour towards Zero-sugar Beverages: A Case Study of Delhi NCR
In recent years, rising consumer health consciousness has led to a significant shift in beverage consumption patterns, especially in urban areas like Delhi National Capital Region (NCR). This research aims to understand consumer behaviour towards zero-sugar beverages in the Delhi NCR. A structured survey of 320 respondents across different age groups, income levels, and health profiles was conducted using a structured questionnaire in 2025 through multistage sampling. Factor analysis was employed as a statistical tool to analyze consumer behaviour and perception towards zero-sugar beverages. A chi-square test was used to examine the relationship between customers’ awareness of zero-sugar beverages and their level of education. In the findings, two significant factors had arisen: one concerned consumers influenced by health fears and mistrust; the other was health-conscious or positive consumers, motivated by fitness, health, and informed choices. According to the study, respondents who were highly concerned about their health and concerned about labels preferred sugar-free beverages. There was considerable dissent about the deception that sugar-free beverages are solely for persons with diabetes. The study’s overall conclusions indicate that the sugar-free beverage industry in Delhi NCR is still relatively nascent but has a lot of potential.
Bibliometric Exploration of Bullying, Workplace Bullying, and Cyberbullying based on the Scientific Scopus Quantum
The study examines the landscape of bullying research, with a focus on workplace bullying and cyberbullying, utilizing Scopus-indexed publications from 1999 to 2024. A total of 20,406 publications were analyzed, including 14051 on bullying, 1,583 on workplace bullying, and 4,772 on cyberbullying. A bibliometric analysis was conducted using descriptive and network techniques to evaluate research productivity, trends, and collaborations. Key findings reveal that citations for bullying peaked in 2015, with workplace bullying research stabilizing, while cyberbullying research has shown sustained growth, reflecting the rise of digital platforms. Co-authorship analysis highlights strong international collaborations, with significant contributions from scholars like Espelage, D.L., and Einarsen, S., and leading research hubs in the U.S., U.K., and Scandinavia. Keyword co-occurrence identified critical themes such as workplace dynamics, adolescent victimization, and digital harassment. Emerging clusters in healthcare and family dynamics highlight underexplored domains that require further investigation. Future research should address bullying’s socio psychological impacts and develop innovative methodologies to mitigate its evolving challenges in diverse settings.
Influence of Private Extension Services on Practices and Perceptions of Shrimp Farmers
The study conducted in 2025 (January to April) to evaluate the perceptions of shrimp farmers regarding private extension services, focusing on quality, accessibility, cost, and impact on farming practices in Tamil Nadu, India. A sample of 150 shrimp farmers was selected using proportionate random sampling from five districts; Nagapattinam, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Cuddalore, and Ramanathapuram. Data were collected through a structured interview schedule and was analysed using SPSS software. The findings revealed that shrimp farmers generally held positive views of private extension services, particularly regarding updated market information (51%), addressing the needs of small and marginal shrimp farmers (50%), regular visits by extension agents (45%), and technical expertise (49%). However, challenges like geographical barriers (85%), lack of awareness (76%), and high service costs (59%). Among 17 variables, 10 were found to be significantly associated with shrimp farmers’ perception levels. Multiple regression analysis revealed that independent factors accounted for 64.7 per cent of the variation in farmers’ perceptions. The study suggests enhancing private extension services by addressing affordability and improving collaboration between the public and private sectors to improve shrimp farming productivity and income.
Towards Digitally Enabled Extension Services: ICT Training Directions in Coastal Odisha
The study was conducted in 2024 to assess the knowledge and accessibility of common ICT tools, training need assessment, and attendance in programs for ICT applications. A total of 248 public extension workers, chosen from four coastal districts, were split into two groups based on their hierarchical responsibilities. While both groups were aware of fundamental ICT tools like PCs and smartphones, there was a notable difference in advanced tools like AI interfaces, drones, and modern digital accessories. While Group 2 (junior officers) demonstrated greater exposure to emerging technology, they were less skilled in basic digital document management, which was prioritized for training. Group-1 members expressed the most prominent training needs in basic troubleshooting and cybersecurity, along with Google tools. There was an overall increasing trend in participation in activities related to ICT applications for years, which showcases a sort of optimism in skills’ upscaling efforts.
Factors Influencing the Adaptation Behaviour of Rice Growers to Climate Change in Andhra Pradesh, India
The rice producers of Andhra Pradesh face the problem of declining productivity due to climate change factors. Climate change has hit the paddy growers of Andhra Pradesh hard and they need to adopt adaptation practices to counter the effects of changing climate. The study has identified and ranked the adaptation techniques followed by 240 paddy growers on the basis of extent of adoption. Multiple regression analysis was done to identify the factors influencing climate change adaptation behaviour of the rice cultivators. It was observed that education, farm income and information seeking behaviour have a positive effect on the adaptation behaviour, whereas farm size, farmer to farmer information exchange and change resistance were found to influence negatively the adaptive behaviour of farmers to climate change. The problems faced by the farmers in adaptation to climate change have also been identified and ranked. Lack of suitable varieties and quality seeds, price fluctuation in the market, low technical knowledge on climate resilient rice cultivation and lack of weather based insurance for rice cultivation were the most important problems that the rice cultivators faced in adaptation to climate change.
Adoption and Compliance of AI-Enabled Pest Advisories: Evidence from the National Pest Surveillance System (NPSS) in Odisha, India
Artificial intelligence (AI)–enabled pest surveillance can bridge gaps between timely diagnosis and on-farm action in smallholder systems. This study assessed farmer exposure to and uptake of advisories from India’s newly launched NPSS in Odisha. An exploratory, cross-sectional inquiry was conducted during 2024–25 across 30 districts; one block and two villages per district were purposively selected based on NPSS use. Data were gathered from 1,422 participants through focus group discussions and personal interviews, and analysed. Paddy dominated the sample’s cropping pattern (66.17% of respondents), followed by brinjal (9.21%). Overall, 79.16 per cent were receiving NPSS advisories; the platform issued 851 advisories during the study, with 418 acted upon (49.11% adherence). Adherence declined as pest severity increased, especially for brown planthopper (BPH) and yellow stem borer (YSB) in paddy from 47.73 per cent (low severity) to 32.47 per cent (high severity), and YSB showed a similar drop (about 45.95% to 10%). Qualitative insights indicate lower uptake when recommendations involve costlier or more complex chemical controls, suggesting a need for clearer messaging, phased options, and enhanced last-mile support. The findings highlight substantial reach but moderate compliance, underscoring opportunities to tailor NPSS advisories to farmers’ resource realities and to strengthen capacity-building for higher-severity scenarios.
Crew Position-Based Assessment of Fishermen’s Knowledge Needs in The Coastal Districts of Tamil Nadu
The study conducted in 2025 (January to May) examined the knowledge needs of fishermen in Tamil Nadu, focusing on their roles within the fishing crew: Skippers/Drivers, Net Haulers, and Helpers. Tamil Nadu, with its extensive coastline, plays a vital role in India’s marine fisheries, supporting millions of fishermen. The study identified key knowledge gaps in areas such as modern navigation technologies, sustainable fishing practices, and gear handling. A total of 150 fishermen were surveyed from coastal districts, including Nagapattinam, Ramanathapuram, Thoothukudi, and Kanyakumari, using a structured questionnaire. The findings indicate that Skippers/Drivers are generally proficient in knowledge and require less training, whereas Net Haulers and Helpers exhibit a higher need for knowledge in technology, sustainability, and gear management.
Behavioural Determinants of Secondary Agriculture-based Entrepreneurs in Assam
Rural India still struggles with income gaps. Secondary agriculture serves as a strategic path to promote efficient rural entrepreneurship. The study was conducted in 2024 in Assam’s Dhubri district employing a mixed-method research design that examined variations in entrepreneurial attributes across secondary agricultural enterprises, based on data from 100 respondents representing five enterprises. Entrepreneurial behaviour showed positive correlations with factors like education, income, investment, media use, aspiration, motivation, gratification, and values, and a negative correlation with age. Multiple regression analysis explained 72.8 per cent of entrepreneurial behaviour (adjusted R² = 0.645). Using principal component analyses (PCA) and Varimax rotation, 23 entrepreneurial attributes were grouped and renamed into seven factors. The strategic policy advocacy to enhance entrepreneurs’ holistic development should prioritize these key attributes of secondary agriculture-based entrepreneurs to improve their entrepreneurial behaviour.
Determinants of Consumer Perceptions towards Value-added Millet Products in Kerala, India
The paper examines determinants affecting the consumption of value-added millet products among consumers in Kerala, India. Using multi-stage sampling, 326 samples were collected from three districts of Kerala state in India, namely, Trivandrum, Palakkad, and Malappuram in December 2023. The study employed t-tests and one-way ANOVA to investigate the potential impact of socio-economic characteristics on consumer perception of value-added millet products. The structural equation model (SEM) was employed to analyse the determinants, like nutritional value, price, package quality, flavour, and media exposure, on consumer behaviour to buying millet products. Consumer perceptions vary according to demographic features such as gender, age, marital status, area of residence, and income. The SEM model states that all five determinants have a significant impact on the perception of consumers except price. With an unstandardized coefficient of 0.59, the “nutritional benefit” determinant had the strongest positive influence on consumer perception, while with an unstandardized coefficient of -0.023, price had a negative influence on the perception of consumers. The results imply that to increase the acceptance of value-added millet products, initiatives to promote millet consumption should concentrate on enhancing nutritional knowledge, taste, flavour, quality of production, and cost reduction.
Determining the Knowledge Level and Accessibility of Major ICT Tools by Farmers in Madhya Pradesh
Information Communication Technologies are vibrant ways to significantly boost the agricultural sector by providing farmers with access to vital information, input availability, and online financial transactional services like DBT covering PM-KISAN Samman Nidhi, agri-input subsidies, and domestic gas subsidies. The study was conducted in 2024 to find out the major ICTs tools’ use, accessibility, knowledge level, and major barriers faced in use by collecting data from 150 randomly sampled farmers of Harda district of Madhya Pradesh. Data were collected by using a pre-tested structured interview schedule and analyzed with appropriate statistical tools. The majority of respondent farmers (68.45%) had a medium knowledge level about ICT tools. Education, annual income, social participation, mass media exposure, and extension contact expressed significant positive correlation with accessibility of major ICT tools among farmers. The major barriers were observed with Garrett’s ranking techniques. The farmers, especially young farmers, possessed the ICT tool like a smart mobile only for personal entertainment and interconnectivity, rarely using it to access agricultural knowledge for improvement. The backstopping of farmers to boost digital literacy for agricultural development and ICT adoption could be augmented by organizing educational campaigns and training.
Modeling of Farmers’ Preferences towards Climate-Smart Agriculture Using Conjoint Analysis
Climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity, particularly for smallholder farmers in India. The study utilized a mixed-method approach, which involved 150 farmers and expert consultations from Punjab and Uttar Pradesh states related to the domain in the year 2024-25. Farmers’ preferences were studied using CSA attributes: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, deploying the conjoint analysis. It was found that the farmers are continuously affected by the dynamic weather conditions, causing irregular rainfall to impact crop health and eventually crop yield. Although awareness related to CSA was present but its adoption was very low due to the absence of infrastructure and technology. A gap was found between the recommendation of the experts related to integrated and efficient nutrient management and the farmers’ adoption level. As a result of the conjoint analysis, it was found that the adaptation attribute was highly favoured by the farmers, followed by the other two, i.e., mitigation and productivity. The reliability of the model was supported by Pearson’s R (0.934) and Kendall’s tau (0.856), which revealed a strong connection between the prediction and the actual preferences.
Impact Assessment of Floating and Alternative Feeds (Wolffia globosa) for Fish Rearing Technologies in Tripura, India
The study assessed the social, economic, and environmental impacts of floating feed– and Wolffia-based fish rearing technologies disseminated by the College of Fisheries, CAU (Imphal), Lembucherra, Tripura. An after-only design was employed with 140 respondents: 100 floating feed adopters chosen through simple random sampling and 40 Wolffia adopters through complete enumeration. Impact indicators across social, economic, and environmental domains were developed using Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART) criteria, expert-validated, and analysed with the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, paired t-tests, and Spearman’s correlation. Floating feed adoption improved production (+16.75 kg cycle–¹), net returns (+Rs. 6,644.26), and feed efficiency [Apparent feed conversion ratio (AFCR) –0.23], raising the Economic Impact Score from 32.93 to 40.23 (p = 0.000). Social participation, awareness, and income increased, while the Environmental Impact Score fell from 23.996 to 19.146, reflecting improved water quality. Wolffia adoption also enhanced production (+18.48 kg cycle–¹), returns (+Rs. 4,804.35), and AFCR (–0.25), contributing to livelihoods, nutrition, and climate-resilient aquaculture. Major constraints included high floating feed price, supplier dependence, flood induced losses, and weak extension support. Overall, both technologies boosted aquaculture productivity, profitability, and sustainability, highlighting the need for technical services, training, and institutional support.
Climate Resilient Farming: Influence of Livelihood Assets on Agrochemical vs Organic Input Use in Coastal India
Climate change poses immense pressure on global agriculture, particularly in coastal regions. Several adaptation strategies to climate change were taken by farmers, though not all are aligned with long-term sustainability. Through logistic regression, the study assesses the role of livelihood assets in farmers’ choices between agrochemical intensification and organic farming, where livelihood assets were measured using the Department for International Development’s (DFID) framework. The study covered five coastal states and one coastal union territory of India. Using a stratified random sampling method, 520 agricultural households were surveyed during 2024–2025. Villages were selected based on proximity to the sea and the implementation of the National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) and Project on Climate Resilient Agriculture (PoCRA) programmes. Findings indicate physical capital as a pivotal factor encouraging organic farming and curbing agrochemical intensification, while human capital reduces reliance on agrochemicals. Natural and financial capital enhance agrochemical use. The dual positive influence of social capital on organic farming and agrochemical intensification underscores the need for tailored guidance, as affirmed by sustainability-oriented initiatives, proven effective in limiting agrochemical intensification as NICRA and PoCRA. Inclusion in such programmes and enhancing human and physical capital may reinforce farmers’ orientation with sustainable adaptation trajectories.
Time Management and Procrastination Patterns Among Undergraduate Agriculture Students
Academic and personal success among students is achieved when they can manage their time effectively without procrastination. The present study was conducted in 2025 to examine time management behaviors and procrastination tendencies among 101 undergraduate students across three batches: 2021 (N = 28), 2022 (N = 33), and 2023 (N = 40) from the College of Agriculture, Vellayani. A 20-item standardized questionnaire, rated on a 5-point Likert scale, revealed a gradual decline in batch-wise mean scores: 2.238 (2021), 2.199 (2022), and 2.014 (2023). Students consistently scored highest in task prioritization (Mean = 3.17) and personal time management, while daily task listing (Mean = 1.48) and short task scheduling (Mean = 1.11) were persistent weaknesses. Heatmap and Spearman correlation analyses indicated behavioral consistency between the 2022 and 2023 cohorts (ñ = 0.818) and divergence with the 2021 batch. The results of the one-way ANOVA and paired t-tests indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in time management scores among the batches. The results highlight the need for early interventions that strengthen micro-level planning behaviours, thereby reducing procrastination tendencies, enhancing academic self-regulation, and improving undergraduate learning outcomes.
Communication and Marketing Behaviour of Tomato Growers in Southern Odisha, India
The study investigated the communication and marketing behaviour of tomato growers in southern Odisha during the 2023–24 cropping season. The study employed a multi-stage random sampling technique to select 120 farmers from twelve villages in Gajapati and Rayagada districts. Data were collected using a structured interview schedule, focusing on mass media exposure, information seeking, information sharing, planning, decision making, and post-marketing review. Descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to analyse the data. The results revealed that 55.8 per cent of growers had medium planning ability and 64.2 per cent displayed medium overall marketing behaviour. Mobile phones and television were always used by about three quarters of respondents, while newspapers, radio, farm magazines and extension publications were seldom consulted. Extension officials and local leaders were important but infrequently contacted sources of information. Positive correlations were found between communication behaviour and marketing behaviour, and variables such as education, farm size and participation in extension activities significantly influenced both. Enhancing digital extension services, improving farmer training on market planning and expanding market infrastructure could substantially improve tomato growers’ decision-making and profitability.
Modelling Livelihood Security of Tribal Farmers in South Odisha using Machine Learning
Tribal farming systems ensure livelihood security through complex socio-economic and behavioural interactions that defy simple linear models. The study analysed primary data collected through simple random sampling method from 180 households in Gajapati and Rayagada districts of Odisha during 2023-24 to analyse the Livelihood Security score using a Random Forest regression. Out-of-bag validation demonstrated model stability with an R² of approximately 0.865 using around 400 trees. The age was the most significant predictor, followed by self-confidence, with smaller contributions from management orientation and innovative proneness. One- and two-dimensional partial dependence outcomes highlighted non-linear age effects and interactions, indicating that increased confidence and enhanced management capacity improve predicted livelihood security across all age groups. These results suggest actionable strategies for agricultural extension: implementing confidence-building and management training tailored to life-stage constraints could yield substantial benefits. Limitations include the correlational nature of the data and the reliance on partial dependence.
Use of Generative AI by Small-scale Farmers in Nigeria: An Empirical Study
The study, conducted in 2025, investigated the digital readiness and use of generative artificial intelligence (AI) among small-scale farmers in Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 120 small-scale farmers, and data were collected through interview schedules. The majority (62.5%) were small-scale farmers with over ten years of farming experience. Many of the small-scale farmers had digital access as a lot of them owned smart phones (64.2%) had internet connectivity (65%), and regularly used the internet (53.3%). Traditional media (Radio and TV) (63.3%) remained their primary source of agricultural information. Extension service access (4.2%) was notably low. Many small scale farmers (64.2%) had used generative AI, mainly for accessing information (45%) and conducting basic research about their farm operations and general well-being (17.5%), and most indicated willingness to continue its use (89.2%). However, major barriers to the use of generative AI included limited awareness and lack of access to digital devices. AI awareness was generally low but positively associated with education. Although generative AI adoption is growing, significant challenges remain, underscoring the need for targeted generative AI training in agriculture as well as the design and implementation of more generative AI awareness program.
Economic Perspective of Trends and Determinants of Paddy Stubble Burning in North Western India
During the paddy harvesting season in North-Western India, a significant smog problem occurs due to the unhealthy practice of stubble burning, which also reduces soil fertility. The government has implemented various efforts to lessen its severity. By using tabular analysis of burning events, this study found that the number of such events decreased from 2016 to 2021 in North-Western India. The Mann-Kendall test indicated a negative trend in burning events for the three states of Punjab, Haryana, and WUP. In Punjab, about 49% of the paddy area is burned, with the growth rates of the burnt area and paddy area being nearly equal. Conversely, in Haryana, only 17% of the paddy area is burned, but its burnt area is growing at a faster rate than the paddy area itself. Districts like Firozepur, Faridkot, Patiala, and Sangrur in Punjab, along with Fatehabad, Kurukshetra, and Karnal in Haryana, require special attention due to their relatively high percentage of paddy area subjected to burning. Panel regression analysis suggests that cultivating potato and basmati rice can reduce the paddy area affected by burning.